Social factors underpinning poor health and how they can be addressed in Hackney, London. - Free Essay Example

It is well-established that social factors à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" including education, economic participation and access to health services à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" have a considerable impact on a persons physical and mental health outcomes (World Health Organisation, 2015: np). Addressing these social factors underpins effective responses to poor health (World Health Organisation, 2015: np). This paper provides a critical overview of the social factors which contribute to poor health outcomes in one borough in London, England. It then discusses how these social factors can be addressed to improve health outcomes in this borough. The borough selected for analysis in this paper is Hackney. Hackney is located in north London. The borough has a population of approximately 263,150 (Hackney Council, 2015a: p. 1). It is socio-culturally diverse, though the largest ethnic group, comprising 36.2% of the population, is White British and the majority of people speak English (Hackney Council, 2015a: p. 1). Hackney is divided into 137 Lower Super Output Areas (LSOAs), each containing approximately 1,500 people (Hackney Council, 2014b: p. 1); these LSOAs allow for the close monitoring of population health and social data. Hackney consistently reports poor health outcomes in a variety of domains, and it is recognised that these health outcomes are underpinned by a complex interplay of social factors (Hackney Council, 2014b). The first of the social factors contributing to poor health outcomes in Hackney to be explo red in this paper is education. Education is an important social determinant of health because it enables people to be health literate à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" that is, to access, understand and use health information to improve their health (Kilgour, Matthews, Christian, Shire, 2015: p. 487). Currently, the rate of educational attainment in Hackney is high, with the proportion of students obtaining GCSEs, approximately 58%, comparable with the national average (Hackney Council, 2014a: p. 18). However, Hackney has a history of educational disadvantage, and some LSOAs in Hackney are still considered to be in the top 20% of the most educationally-deprived in Britain (Hackney Council, 2014b: p. 9). Indeed, the number of adults in Hackney with no qualifications, approximately 9.1%, is higher than the national average (Hackney Council, 2015a: p. 3). As noted by Kilgour et al. (2015, p. 488), health literacy is directly correlated with positive health attitudes, behaviours and outcomes. Subsequ ently, the attainment of a lower standard of education à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" in the UK, particularly in the primary years à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" and, therefore, lower health literacy increases a persons risk of a range of negative health outcomes (Albert Davia, 2011: p. 163). In the UK, standard of education is directly linked to a persons level of economic participation, including their prospects for employment and level of income à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" all important social determinants of health (Borooah Mangan, 2008: p. 351). Educational disadvantage in Hackney is closely related to economic disadvantage. Rates of unemployment in Hackney are 8.1%, compared with a national average of just 6.2%, and in Hackney another 3% of the population identify as unemployed job-seekers (Hackney Council, 2015a: p. 3). Hackney ranks within the top 10% of the most economically deprived boroughs nationally and, in terms of household income, 13% of its LSOAs rank in the top 5% of the most deprived nationa lly (Hackney Council, 2014c: p. 2). Studies have found that, in the UK and elsewhere, unemployment and job insecurity are directly correlated with health in all domains, including physical health (Puig-Barrachina, Malmusi, Martenez Benach, 2011: p. 459; Hergenrather, Zeglin McGuire-Kuletz, 2015: p. 2). In the UK, there is a strong relationship between economic disadvantage and a lack of access to nutritionally-appropriate foods, and this underpins poor health outcomes (Hamer Mishra, 2010: p. 491). Indeed, many people on low incomes in the UK consume cheap, easily-accessible fast food diets characterised by a high intake of saturated fat, leading to higher rates of obesity in economically disadvantaged regions (Hamer Mishra, 2010: p. 491; Estrade, Dick, Crawford, Jepson, Ellaway McNeill, 2015: p. 793). In Hackney, approximately 23% of adults and 26% of children are overweight or obese; this is slightly below the national average; however Hackney Council still identifies obesi ty as a significant burden on the regions health system (Hackney Council, 2015b: p. 55; Hackney Council, 2015c: p. 67). It is well established that obesity significantly predisposes people to a range of poor health outcomes. Indeed, in Hackney the prevalence of obesity-related diseases such as cancer, diabetes mellitus, stroke, hypertension and cardiovascular disease are either comparable to or above London averages (Hackney Council, 2014f: p. 81-110). Unemployment and lower disposable income also result in reduced access to appropriate housing, and this is another key social determinant of health. Hackney has a greater number of overcrowded households, including those lacking at least one bedroom, more temporary accommodation and higher levels of homelessness than other economically-comparable boroughs in London (Hackney Council, 2014d: p 6; Hackney Council, 2014e: p. 6). Adding to this problem is the fact that housing affordability in Hackney has declined significantly in the p ast five years (Hackney Council, 2014a: p. 20; Hackney Council, 2015a: p. 2). Access to appropriate housing can be considered a social determinant of health in the UK because it is correlated with mental health (Barratt, Green Speed, 2015: p. 107; Lidell Guinea, 2015: p. 191). Though there are complexities in terms of drawing a direct causal relationship between socioeconomic disadvantage and mental illness, it is well-established that mental illness is a considerable problem for socioeconomically disadvantaged people in the UK (Mangalore, Knapp, Jenkins 2007, p. 1037). Some LSOAs in Hackney have rates of serious mental illness, including schizophrenia and bipolar affective disorder, as high as 3% (Hackney Council, 2014e: p. 7). Hackneys young, transient and socio-culturally diverse population contributes to the high rates of mental illness in the borough (Hackney Council, 2014e: p. 5). In Hackney, socioeconomic disadvantage à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" and particularly unemployment and housing instability à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" is strongly correlated with psychiatric admission and suicide (Hackney Council, 2014e: p. 6). Poor mental health also has effects on physical health. As noted by Hackney Council (2014e: p. 60), a person with a mental health disorder in Hackney is more likely to experience comorbidities such as cancer, cardiovascular disease, diabetes mellitus and other systemic disorders. In addition to mental illness, poverty is strongly correlated with substance misuse in Hackney (Hackney Council, 2014d: p 6). Because it leads to a range of poor physical and mental health outcomes, substance misuse can itself be considered a poor health outcome. Substance misuse is a significant problem in Hackney; indeed, the rates of people claiming medical benefits for alcoholism and attending inpatient treatment programs for the misuse of drugs, particularly opiates, in Hackney is higher than the averages for both London and England (Hackney   Council, 2014d: p . 6). High-risk behaviours associated with substance misuse, such as binge drinking, and rates of hospital admission for substance misuse are higher in Hackney than in London generally (Hackney Council, 2014d: p. 7). Whilst the rate of death from substance misuse in Hackney is decreasing, it is still considerably higher than the national average and poses a significant cost to the health care system (Hackney Council, 2014d: pp. 6-7). Rates of smoking in Hackney, at around 25%, are also higher than national averages (Hackney Council, 2015b: pp. 47-50). It is well-established that smoking, as with substance misuse in general, predisposes people to a range of poor health outcomes; indeed, in Hackney there is a comparatively high prevalence of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease linked to smoking (Hackney Council, 2014f: p. 92). There is one final reason why socioeconomic disadvantage may be considered a social determinant of health: both in the UK and elsewhere, socioeconomic disa dvantage reduces a persons capacity to access health services (Hanratty, Zhang Whitehead, 2007, p. 89). Whilst ease of access to health services in Hackney is unknown, 57% of adults using social care services in Hackney report having less access to these services than they would like (Hackney Council, 2014e: p. 6). Reduced access to health care services, including both primary (preventive) and tertiary (treatment) services, logically underpins poor health outcomes. As noted earlier in this paper, responding effectively to poor health outcomes involves addressing the social factors which underpin these outcomes (World Health Organisation, 2015: np). Because education is one of the key social health determinants and is directly related to many other determinants, including economic participation, addressing education must be a focus. Hackney Councils Five Year Vision for Education is centred on Hackneys schools, which are already performing at a standard above the national av erage (Hackney Council, 2012). There is a need to instead, target educational initiatives towards the considerable number of adults in Hackney who lack formal education. In the UK context, self-management education in particular has proven to be effective in improving health outcomes (Lorig, Holman Halsted, 2003: p. 1). In addition to education, improving economic participation is an important consideration in improving health outcomes in Hackney. Hackney Council (2010: p. 5) is critical of the effects of national unemployment welfare programs for people in Hackney, noting rising costs of living in Hackney, including increasing healthcare-associated costs, make welfare benefits appear more attractive than employment to some. Though it is beyond the scope of this paper, the benefits of national welfare reform on rates of economic participation and, subsequently, health should be considered. In the short-term, however, evidence suggests that welfare-to-work programs à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â ‚¬Å" such as Hackneys Pathways to Work program, which supports the unemployed to become job-ready à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" may be effective in increasing economic participation (Hackney Council, 2010: p. 5). In the UK, research indicates that such interventions are most effective when they are delivered in combination with physical and mental health services, thus conclusively breaking the cycle of poor health and economic participation (Hackney Council, 2010: p. 5; Ceolta-Smith, Salway, Tod, 2015: p. 254) Addressing other issues underpinning the complex interplay between socioeconomic disadvantage and poor health outcomes is also important. As obesity underpins many poor health outcomes for people in Hackney, addressing obesity through exercise and nutrition interventions should be a focus. The proportion of people in Hackney taking part in structured physical activity programs is considerably higher than the national average, and this is encouraging (Hackney Council, 2014e: p. 65). H owever, providing safe spaces for exercise is an important consideration in socioeconomically disadvantaged regions; Hackneys Strategy for Parks (Hackney Council, 2008: p. 16) outlines a variety of ways in which this may be achieved. There are also multiple different strategies by which a populations nutritional status may be improved, however research suggests the most effective strategies in the UK context involve the provision of government-funded food vouchers and school meals (Attree, 2005: p. 67; Machell, 2015: p. 14). Hackney Council (2015c: p. 67) estimates that between 34% and 37% of children in Hackney are eligible for free school meals, and so this is a particularly important consideration in this context. In addition to physical health, mental health should also be addressed. Hackney Council (2014d, 2014e) already provides a sophisticated range of services to support people with both mental illness and illness related to substance misuse. However, a number of UK studi es highlight a strong correlation between property regeneration and improvements in participants mental health (Curl, Kearns, Mason, Egan, Tannahill Ellaway, 2015: p. 12; Egan, Lawson, Kearns, Conway Neary, 2015: p. 101). Therefore, housing regeneration initiatives à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" particularly those targeting council housing, where the majority of socioeconomically disadvantaged people in Hackney reside à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" is another important consideration. Research suggests the best housing programs in the UK also address other health factors by ensuring effective water and waste infrastructure, damp and thermal insulation and appropriate social spaces are established (Stewart, 2005: p. 533). Social factors à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" including education, economic participation and access to health services à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" have a considerable impact on a persons physical and mental health outcomes, and addressing these social factors underpins effective responses to poor health. This paper has provided a critical analysis of the social factors which contribute to poor health outcomes in the borough of Hackney. It has also discussed how these social factors can be addressed to effectively improve health outcomes for those in Hackney. References Albert, C Davia, M 2011, Education is a key determinant of health in Europe: A comparative analysis of 11 countries, Health Promotion International, vol. 26, no. 2, pp. 163-170. Attree, P 2008, A critical analysis of UK public health policies in relation to diet and nutrition in low-income households, Maternal Child Nutrition, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 67-78. Barratt, C, Green, G Speed, E 2015, Mental health and houses in multiple occupation, Journal of Public Mental Health, vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 107-117. Borooah, VK Mangan, J 2008, Education, occupational class and unemployment in the regions of the United Kingdom, Education Economics, vol. 16, no. 4, pp. 351-370. Ceolta-Smith, J, Salway, S Tod, AM 2015, A review of health-related support provision within the UK Work programme: Whats on the menu?, Social Policy Administration, vol. 49, no. 2, pp. 254-276. Curl, A, Kearns, A, Mason, P, Egan, M, Tannahill, C Ellaway, A 2015, Physical and mental health outcomes following housing improvements: Evidence from the GoWell study, Journal of Epidemiology Community Health, vol. 69, no. 1, pp. 12-19. Egan, M, Lawson, L, Kearns, A, Conway, E Neary, J 2015, Neighbourhood demolition, relocation and health: A qualitative longitudinal study of housing-led urban regeneration in Glasgow, UK, Health Place, vol. 33, no. 1, pp. 101-108. Estrade, M, Dick, S, Crawford, F, Jepson, R, Ellaway, A McNeill, G 2015, A qualitative study of independent fast food vendors near secondary schools in disadvantaged Scottish neighbourhoods, BMC Public Health, vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 793-201. Hackney Council 2008, Social spaces: A strategy for parks in Hackney, viewed 26 September 2015, https://www.hackney.gov.uk/Assets/Documents/parks-strategy.pdf Hackney Council 2010, Hidden Unemployment: Incapacity Benefit in Hackney, viewed 26 September 2015, https://www.hackney.gov.uk/Assets/Documents/CEs_Briefing_LBHIB_2010_Final.pdf Hackney Council 2012, Five Year Vision for Educ ation in Hackney: 2012-2017, viewed 26 September 2015, https://mginternet.hackney.gov.uk/documents/s29234/WHW%205%20year%20vision%20120829.pdf Hackney Council 2014a, A Profile of Hackney, its People and Place, viewed 26 September 2015, https://www.hackney.gov.uk/Assets/Documents/Hackney-Profile.pdf Hackney Council 2014b, Indices of Multiple Deprivation 2010 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" Briefing April 2011, viewed 26 September 2015, https://www.hackney.gov.uk/Assets/Documents/Indices_of_Deprivation_2010_Briefing.pdf Hackney Council 2014c, Unemployment, Deprivation and Benefits, viewed 26 September 2015, https://www.hackney.gov.uk/Assets/Documents/LEA_Benefits_Deprivation_and_Unemployment.pdf Hackney Council 2014d, A Substance Misuse Health Needs Assessment for the Residents of Hackney and City of London, viewed 26 September 2015, https://www.hackney.gov.uk/Assets/Documents/Substance-misuse-mental-health-needs-assessment.pdf Hackney Council 2014e, A Mental Health Needs Assessment for the Residents of Hackney and City of London, viewed 26 September 2015, https://www.hackney.gov.uk/Assets/Documents/Mental-health-needs-assessment.pdf Hackney Council 2014f, Adult Health and Illness, viewed 26 September 2015, https://www.hackney.gov.uk/Assets/Documents/HWP-Chapter-6-Adult_health_and_illness.pdf Hackney Council 2015a, Hackney: Facts Figures Leaflet, viewed 26 September 2015, https://www.hackney.gov.uk/Assets/Documents/Facts-and-Figures.pdf Hackney Council 2015b, Lifestyle and Behaviour, viewed 26 September 2015, https://www.hackney.gov.uk/Assets/Documents/HWP-Chapter-3-Lifestyle_and_behaviour.pdf Hackney Council 2015c, Children, Young People Families, viewed 26 September 2015, https://www.hackney.gov.uk/Assets/Documents/HWP-Chapter-5-Children_young_people_and_families.pdf Hamer, M Mishra, GD 2010, Dietary patterns and cardiovascular risk markers in the UK Low Income Diet and Nutrition Survey, Nutrition, Metabolism Cardiovascular Disease, vol. 2 0, no. 7, pp. 491-497. Hanratty, B, Zhang, T Whitehead, M 2007, How close have universal health systems come to achieving equity in use of curative services? A systematic review, International Journal of Health Services, vol. 37, no. 1, pp. 89-109. Hergenrather, KC, Zeglin, RJ McGuire-Kuletz, M 2015, Employment as a social determinant of health: A systematic review of longitudinal studies exploring the relationship between employment status and physical health, Rehabilitation Research, Policy Education, vol. 29, no. 1, pp. 2-26. Kilgour, L, Matthews, N, Christian, P Shire, J 2015, Health literacy in schools: Prioritising health and well-being issues through the curriculum, Education Society, vol. 20, no. 4, pp. 485-500. Lorig, K, Holman, R Halsted, R 2003, Self management education: History, definition, outcomes and mechanisms, Annals of Behavioural Medicine, vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 1-7. Liddell, C Guiney, C 2015, Living in a cold and damp home: Frameworks for unde rstanding impacts on mental wellbeing, Public Health, vol. 129, no. 3, pp. 191-199. Machell, G 2015, Considering influences on the policy formation of Healthy Start: A government-funded nutrition support program for low-income women and children in the UK, Journal of Policy Practice, vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 14-34. Mangalore, R, Knapp, M Jenkins, R 2007, Income-related inequality in mental health in Britain: The concentration index approach, Psychological Medicine, vol. 37, no. 7, pp. 1037-1045. Puig-Barrachina, V, Malmusi, D, Martenez, JM Benach, J 2011, Monitoring social determinants of health inequalities: The impact of unemployment among vulnerable groups, International Journal of Health Services, vol. 41, no. 3, pp. 459-482. Stewart, J 2005, A review of UK housing policy: Ideology and public health, Public Health, vol. 119, no. 1, pp. 525-534. World Health Organisation 2015, Evidence on social determinants of health, viewed 26 September 2015, https://www.who.int/soc ial_determinants/themes/en/